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Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (34,076) 99.8%, Location: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 315436821074 Oleksandr Usyk Gold Silver Coin Boxer Signed Ukraine Russia War Tyson Fury 2024. Oleksandr Usyk World Heavyweight Boxing Undisputed Champion This is a Silver & Gold Plated Coin to commemorate The Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion Oleksander Usyk He also fought in the Ukraine Russia War One side has an image from the famous "Ring of Fire" Fight here lands a big punch on Tyson Fury It has the words "Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion" with Two Boxing Gloves Below is his Undisputed Heavyweight Champions Belt with his name below "Oleksandr Usyk" The back has Usyk in his Army Uniform in front of a war plane It has his signature and the words "Warrior in Russia Ukraine War" The coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about 1 oz and it comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder. in Excellent Condition Would make an Excellent Lucky Charm or Collectible Keepsake Souvenir for anyone who loves horse or horse racing Like all my Auctions...Bidding Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve.. If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! AII have a lot of Sporting Memorabilia on Ebay so why not > Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My almost 100% Positive Feedback from over 33,000 Satisfied Customers Most of My Auctions Start at a Penny and I always combine postage so please check out my other items ! I Specialise in Unique Fun Items So For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! ### PLEASE DO NOT CLICK HERE ### Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, f*ckuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Boxing Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Boxing (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Boxing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Boxing Two Royal Navy men boxing for charity (1945). The modern sport was codified in England in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Also known as Western boxing, pugilism[a] Focus Punching, striking Country of origin The sport itself: Ancient history, possibly Prehistoric Modern rules: United Kingdom Olympic sport 688 BC (ancient Greece) 1904 (modern) Boxing (also known as "western boxing" or "pugilism") is a combat sport and a martial art[1] in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves and other protective equipment such as hand wraps and mouthguards, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring. Although the term boxing is commonly attributed to western boxing, in which only fists are involved, it has developed in different ways in different geographical areas and cultures of the World. In global terms, "boxing" today is also a set of combat sports focused on striking, in which two opponents face each other in a fight using at least their fists, and possibly involving other actions such as kicks, elbow strikes, knee strikes, and headbutts, depending on the rules. Some of these variants are the bare-knuckle boxing, kickboxing, Muay Thai, Lethwei, savate, and sanda.[2][3] Boxing techniques have been incorporated into many martial arts, military systems, and other combat sports. Humans have engaged in hand-to-hand combat since the earliest days of human history. The origins of boxing in any of its forms as a sport remain uncertain,[4] but some sources suggest that it has prehistoric roots in what is now Ethiopia, emerging as early as the sixth millennium BC. It is believed that when the Egyptians invaded Nubia, they adopted boxing from the local populace, subsequently popularizing it in Egypt. From there, the sport of boxing spread to various regions, including Greece, eastward to Mesopotamia, and northward to Rome.[5] The earliest visual evidence of any type of boxing is from Egypt and Sumer, both from the third millennia,[6] and can be seen in Sumerian carvings from the third and second millennia BC.[7][8][9][10] The earliest evidence of boxing rules dates back to Ancient Greece, where boxing was established as an Olympic game in 688 BC.[7] Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century with the 1867 introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry Rules. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a standard fixture in most international games—it also has its world championships. Boxing is overseen by a referee[11] over a series of one-to-three-minute intervals called "rounds". A winner can be resolved before the completion of the rounds when a referee deems an opponent incapable of continuing, disqualifies an opponent, or the opponent resigns. When the fight reaches the end of its final round with both opponents still standing, the judges' scorecards determine the victor. In case both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, a professional bout is considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, because a winner must be declared, judges award the contest to one fighter on technical criteria. History Ancient history See also: Ancient Greek boxing and History of physical training and fitness A painting of Minoan youths boxing, from an Akrotiri fresco circa 1650 BC. This is the earliest documented use of boxing gloves. A boxing scene depicted on a Panathenaic amphora from Ancient Greece, circa 336 BC, British Museum Hitting with different extremities of the body, such as kicks and punches, as an act of human aggression, has existed across the world throughout human history, being a combat system as old as wrestling. However, in terms of sports competition, due to the lack of writing in the prehistoric times and the lack of references, it is not possible to determine rules of any kind of boxing in prehistory, and in ancient times only can be inferred from the few intact sources and references to the sport. The origin of the sport of boxing is unknown,[4] however according to some sources boxing in any of its forms has prehistoric origins in present-day Ethiopia, where it appeared in the sixth millennium BC. When the Egyptians invaded Nubia they learned the art of boxing from the local population, and they took the sport to Egypt where it became popular. From Egypt, boxing spread to other countries including Greece, eastward to Mesopotamia, and northward to Rome.[5] The earliest visual evidence of any type of boxing comes from Egypt and Sumer both from the third millennium BC.[6][7] A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes (c. 1350 BC) shows both boxers and spectators.[7] These early Middle-Eastern and Egyptian depictions showed contests where fighters were either bare-fisted or had a band supporting the wrist.[7] The earliest evidence of use of gloves can be found in Minoan Crete (c. 1500–1400 BC).[7] Various types of boxing existed in ancient India. The earliest references to musti-yuddha come from classical Vedic epics such as the Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 BCE) and Ramayana (c. 700–400 BCE).[12] The Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts during the time of King Virata.[13] Duels (niyuddham) were often fought to the death. During the period of the Western Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman—in addition to being well-versed in "the great sciences" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic—was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman and boxer.[14] The Gurbilas Shemi, an 18th-century Sikh text, gives numerous references to musti-yuddha. The martial art is related to other forms of martial arts found in other parts of the Indian cultural sphere including Muay Thai in Thailand, Muay Lao in Laos, Pradal Serey in Cambodia and Lethwei in Myanmar.[15][16] In Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport called pygmachia, and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad, 688 BC. The boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue. Weight categories were not used, which meant heavier fighters had a tendency to dominate. The style of boxing practiced typically featured an advanced left leg stance, with the left arm semi-extended as a guard, in addition to being used for striking, and with the right arm drawn back ready to strike. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, and there is little evidence to suggest that targeting the body or the use of kicks was common,[17][18] in which it resembled modern western boxing. A boxer and a rooster in a Roman mosaic of first century AD at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome.[19] Fighters protected their knuckles with leather strips wrapped around their fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the strips became a weapon. Metal studs were introduced to the strips to make the cestus. Fighting events were held at Roman amphitheatres. Early London prize ring rules A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 Records of boxing activity disappeared in the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called kulachniy boy or 'fist fighting'.[20] As the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport later resurfaced in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing, sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.[21] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. This earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling. On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica), engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize. Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham in 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, 2nd Baronet, a wrestling patron from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today.[22] The first boxing rules, called the Broughton Rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.[23] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of "mufflers", a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in "jousting" or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches. Tom Molineaux (left) vs Tom Cribb in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811 These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to end the round and begin the 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly"[24] and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the seconds of the boxers.[25] In modern boxing, there is a three-minute limit to rounds (unlike the downed fighter ends the round rule). Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit full out.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows.[26][27][unreliable source?] The British sportswriter Pierce Egan coined the term "the sweet science" as an epithet for prizefighting – or more fully "the sweet science of bruising" as a description of England's bare-knuckle fight scene in the early nineteenth century.[28] Boxing could also be used to settle disputes even by females. In 1790 in Waddington, Lincolnshire Mary Farmery and Susanna Locker both laid claim to the affections of a young man; this produced a challenge from the former to fight for the prize, which was accepted by the latter. Proper sidesmen were chosen, and every matter conducted in form. After several knock-down blows on both sides, the battle ended in favour of Mary Farmery.[29] The London Prize Ring Rules introduced measures that remain in effect for professional boxing to this day, such as outlawing butting, gouging, scratching, kicking, hitting a man while down, holding the ropes, and using resin, stones or hard objects in the hands, and biting.[30] Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for lightweights, middleweights and heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. Duration: 40 seconds.0:40 The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.[31] Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.[32] The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face. Late 19th and early 20th centuries Through the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police.[33] Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics. Amateur Boxing Club, Wales, 1963 The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[34] The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada,[35] where it was legal at the time. Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy.[36] They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan. Modern boxing Robert Helenius (on the right) vs. Attila Levin (on the left) at Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland, on 27 November 2010 The modern sport arose from illegal venues and outlawed prizefighting and has become a multibillion-dollar commercial enterprise. A majority of young talent still comes from poverty-stricken areas around the world.[37] Places like Mexico, Africa, South America, and Eastern Europe prove to be filled with young aspiring athletes who wish to become the future of boxing. Even in the U.S., places like the inner cities of New York, and Chicago have given rise to promising young talent. According to Rubin, "boxing lost its appeal with the American middle class, and most of who boxes in modern America come from the streets and are street fighters".[38] Rules Main article: Marquess of Queensberry Rules The Marquess of Queensberry Rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.[32] A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds with a minute spent between each round with the fighters resting in their assigned corners and receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches and elbows that connect, defense, knockdowns, hugging and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where their coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signalled end of each round. A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to their feet and can continue. Some jurisdictions require the referee to count to eight regardless of if the fighter gets up before. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knock-out" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that the referee feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if the fighter is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown. Ingemar Johansson of Sweden KO's heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson, 26 June 1959 In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between). If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps their opponent's arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue. Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed. Unheard of in the modern era, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a "newspaper decision (NWS)" might be made after a no decision bout had ended. A "no decision" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially, however, a "no decision" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report. Professional vs. amateur boxing Roberto Durán (right) held world championships in four weight classes: lightweight, welterweight, light middleweight and middleweight. Women's Amateur Boxing Throughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts.[39] Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career. Western boxers typically participate in one Olympics and then turn pro, while Cubans and boxers from other socialist countries have an opportunity to collect multiple medals.[40] In 2016, professional boxers were admitted in the Olympic Games and other tournaments sanctioned by AIBA.[41] This was done in part to level the playing field and give all of the athletes the same opportunities government-sponsored boxers from socialist countries and post-Soviet republics have.[42] However, professional organizations strongly opposed that decision.[43][44] Amateur boxing Main article: Amateur boxing Nicola Adams (left) is the first female boxer to win an Olympic gold medal. Here with Mary Kom of India. Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, etc. In many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds. Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle. There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn. The white end is just a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits. Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves. Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless the fighters weigh under 165 pounds (75 kg), thus allowing them to wear ten ounce gloves. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.[45] Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH). Professional boxing Main article: Professional boxing Firpo sending Dempsey outside the ring; painting by George Bellows Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia. Through the early 20th century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the 20th century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Kim Duk-koo eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds. Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted. At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested.[46] Boxing styles Definition of style "Style" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout. No two fighters' styles are alike, as each is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes. Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter ("boxer"), brawler (or "slugger"), and inside fighter ("swarmer"). These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc. The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one. It follows the rock paper scissors scenario – boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer.[47] Boxer/out-fighter Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali was a typical example of an out-fighter. A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.[48] Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork. Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe, Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sánchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney,[49] Ezzard Charles,[50] Willie Pep,[51] Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo "Finito" López, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vázquez, Sergio "Maravilla" Martínez, Wladimir Klitschko and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed. Boxer-puncher A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter),[52] but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style. Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Canelo Álvarez, Sugar Ray Leonard, Roy Jones Jr., Wladimir Klitschko, Vasyl Lomachenko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis,[53] Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar De La Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford,[54] Henry Armstrong,[55] Sugar Ray Robinson,[56] Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón,[57] Alexis Argüello, Érik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas Hearns, Julian Jackson and Gennady Golovkin. Counter puncher Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork. Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Calzaghe, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Martínez and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style of boxing is also used by fictional boxer Little Mac. Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches. The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in. The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense. This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off. They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents. A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike. As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style. Brawler/slugger Famous brawler George Foreman A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb a substantial amount of punishment. However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García. A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Riddick Bowe, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Vitali Klitschko, Jake LaMotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James "Clubber" Lang. Brawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well. They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks. Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance. They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch. Swarmer/in-fighter Henry Armstrong was known for his aggressive, non-stop assault style of fighting. In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting. The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters use their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, this permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts, they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his hard "chin", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents. Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving. Notable in-fighters include Henry Armstrong, Aaron Pryor, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Shawn Porter, Miguel Cotto, Gennady Golovkin, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Rocky Marciano,[58] Wayne McCullough, James Braddock, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb,[59][60] David Tua, James Toney and Ricky Hatton. This style was also used by the Street Fighter character Balrog.[citation needed] Combinations of styles All fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge. For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches. Old history of the development of boxing and its prevalence contribute to fusion of various types of martial arts and the emergence of new ones that are based on them. For example, a combination of boxing and sportive sambo techniques gave rise to a combat sambo. Style matchups Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936 There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock paper scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights". Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout "The Sunshine Showdown". Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime. The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers. An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor). The match was nicknamed "Thunder Meets Lightning" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the "Mexican" style of boxing. Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points. Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor. Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage. While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter. Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges. Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend. However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez. As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out. With about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots. Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him. Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry. Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man. By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count. Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer. Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout. Equipment Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not use them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place. A mouthguard is important to protect the teeth[61][62] and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet. While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts. Boxers practice their skills on several types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. The double-end bag is usually connected by elastic on the top and bottom and moves randomly upon getting struck and helps the fighter work on accuracy and reflexes. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also use sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls. Boxers also use punch/focus mitts in which a trainer calls out certain combinations and the fighter strikes the mitts accordingly. This is a great exercise for stamina as the boxer isn't allowed to go at his own pace but that of the trainer, typically forcing the fighter to endure a higher output and volume than usual. In addition, they also allow trainers to make boxers utilize footwork and distances more accurately. Recently boxing clubs have started using something called music boxing machines to train newbies in a more musical way to gain rhythm. Boxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner. The term "ring" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general. Technique Main article: Boxing styles and technique Stance The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson. Upright stance Upright stance Semi-crouch Semi-crouch Full crouch Full crouch In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power). Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the "textbook" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents. In order to retain their stance boxers take 'the first step in any direction with the foot already leading in that direction.'[63] Different stances allow for bodyweight to be differently positioned and emphasised; this may in turn alter how powerfully and explosively a type of punch can be delivered. For instance, a crouched stance allows for the bodyweight to be positioned further forward over the lead left leg. If a lead left hook is thrown from this position, it will produce a powerful springing action in the lead leg and produce a more explosive punch. This springing action could not be generated effectively, for this punch, if an upright stance was used or if the bodyweight was positioned predominantly over the back leg.[64] Mike Tyson was a keen practitioner of a crouched stance and this style of power punching. The preparatory positioning of the bodyweight over the bent lead leg is also known as an isometric preload. Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand. North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots. Punches There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut. Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), their left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following assumes a right-handed boxer. Jab Jab Cross – in counter-punch with a looping Cross – in counter-punch with a looping Hook Hook Uppercut Uppercut Canelo Álvarez is known as an excellent counterpuncher, being able to exploit openings in his opponents' guards while avoiding punches with head and body movement. He is also known as a formidable body puncher.[65][66] Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab extends from the side of the torso and typically does not pass in front of it. It is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or wear down their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko. Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane.[67] Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer give the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab. Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (palm facing down) though in modern times a wide percentage of fighters throw the hook with a vertical fist (palm facing themselves). The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier, Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson. Ricardo Dominguez (left) throws an uppercut on Rafael Ortiz (right).[68] Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" an opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift an opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out. These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos". The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully. A large, swinging circular punch starting from a co*cked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse", "haymaker", "overhand", or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in. Another unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm. An illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch. Both the hook and uppercut may be thrown with both hands, resulting in differing footwork and positioning from that described above if thrown by the other hand. Generally the analogous opposite is true of the footwork and torso movement. Defense There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below. Slipping Slipping Bobbing Bobbing Blocking (with the arms) Blocking (with the arms) Cover-Up (with the gloves) Cover-Up (with the gloves) Clinching Clinching Footwork Footwork Pulling away Pulling away Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson. Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or " Riding The Punch. Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving. Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm", "catch", or "cuff" is a defence which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove. Cover-up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below. Clinch – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing. Unorthodox strategies Rope-a-dope : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "the Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently,[when?] however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown. Tyson Fury also attempted this against Francesco Pianeto but did not pull it off as smoothly. Bolo punch: Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo punch is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilán as well as current British fighter Chris Eubank Jr. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch. Bolo punch Bolo punch Overhand (overcut) Overhand (overcut) Overhand: The overhand is a punch, thrown from the rear hand, not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko. The overhand has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking. Deontay Wilder heavily favours and is otherwise known for knocking many of his opponents out with one of his right overhands. Check hook: A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. Floyd Mayweather Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down. Ring corner Boxer Tina Rupprecht receiving instructions from her trainer while being treated by her cutman in the ring corner between rounds. In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where they rest in between rounds for 1 minute and where their trainers stand. Typically, three individuals stand in the corner besides the boxer; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what they are doing wrong as well as encouraging them if they are losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts, blood and excessive swelling. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts or swelling that threaten the boxer's eyes. In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase "to throw in the towel", meaning to give up, derives from this practice).[69] This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal. Health concerns See also: Dementia pugilistica and The distance (boxing) § Distance change criticisms Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.[70] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.[71] Additionally, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated as CTE. This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased. In March 1981, neurosurgeon Fred Sonstein sought to use CAT scans in an attempt to track the degeneration of boxers' cognitive functions after seeing the decline of Bennie Briscoe.[72] From 1980 to 2007, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters died due to ring or training injuries.[73] In 1983, editorials in the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing.[74] The editor, George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society".[75] Since then, the British,[76] Canadian[77] and Australian[78] Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing. Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[79] Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for "injury". They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10–9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent.[citation needed] However, the data shows that the concussion rate in boxing is the highest of all contact sports.[80][81][82] In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE,[83][84][85][86][87][88] and the evidence indicates that brain damage and the effects of CTE are more severe in boxing.[89][90][91][92][93][94] In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage,[95] and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.[96] The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofilament light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside. More comprehensive studies of neurological function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University in 1994 and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council in 2017 show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport due to the regulations of amateur boxing and a greater control of the athletes,[97] although the studies did not focus on CTE or its long-term effects. In addition, a good training methodology and short career can reduce the effects of brain damage.[98] In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.[99][100] Professional boxing is forbidden in Iceland,[101] Iran and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed.[102] Boxing was banned in Albania from 1965 until the fall of Communism in 1991. Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.[103] The International Boxing Association (AIBA) restricted the use of head guards for senior males after 2013.[104][105] A literature review study analyses present knowledge about protecting headgear and injury prevention in boxing to determine if injury risks associated with not head guard usage increased. The research of the reviewed literature indicates that head guards cover well against lacerations and skull fractures. Therefore, AIBA's decision to terminate the head guard must be considered cautiously, and injury rates among (male) boxers should be continuously evaluated.[106] Possible health benefits This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Like other active and dynamic sports, boxing may be argued to provide some general health benefits, such as fat burning, increased muscle tone, strong bones and ligaments, cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, improved core stability, co-ordination and body awareness, strength and power, stress relief and self-esteem. Boxing Halls of Fame Stamp honoring heavyweight champion Gene Tunney The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF)[107] and the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas. The latter opened in Las Vegas, Nevada in 2013 and was founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson.[108] The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota, New York in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures[109] include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas, Wilfred Benitez, Wilfredo Gomez, Felix Trinidad and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself. The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection. The collection includes the fights of many great champions, including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Durán, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson. It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports. The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio César Chávez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Durán, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson.[110] Governing and sanctioning bodies Main article: List of boxing organisations Former WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight champion, Ukrainian Wladimir Klitschko Governing bodies British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC) European Boxing Union (EBU) Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC) Major sanctioning bodies World Boxing Association (WBA) World Boxing Council (WBC) International Boxing Federation (IBF) World Boxing Organization (WBO) Intermediate International Boxing Organization (IBO) Novice Intercontinental Boxing Federation (IBFed) Amateur International Boxing Association (IBA; now also professional) Boxing rankings Main article: List of current boxing rankings There are various organization and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner. Transnational Boxing Rankings Board (ratings Archived 6 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine) ESPN (ratings) The Ring (ratings) BoxRec (ratings) Fightstat (rating) See also Martial arts portal Boxing (disambiguation) List of boxing films List of current world boxing champions List of female boxers List of male boxers Milling – military training exercise related to boxing Undisputed champion Weight class in boxing Women's boxing World Colored Heavyweight Championship Notes The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition notes as different pugilism and boxing. Vol. 4 "Boxing" (p. 350) "Boxing" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 350–352. & Vol. 22 "Pugilism" (p. 637) "Pugilism" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 637–639. References Boxing is a martial art: "Is boxing considered a martial art? Yes, here's why". MMA Channel. 5 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2023. "9 reasons why boxing is the perfect martial art". Evolve MMA. Retrieved 4 June 2023. 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ISBN 978-1-59629-769-2. History of London Boxing. BBC News. Weight classification, "2009". Encyclopædia Britannica. Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002). An Illustrated History of Boxing. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2201-1. Fox, James A. (2001). Boxing. Stewart, Tabori and Chang. ISBN 1-58479-133-0. Gunn M, Ormerod D. "The Legality of Boxing". Legal Studies. 1995;15:181. Halbert, Christy (2003). The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing. Impact Seminars, Inc. ISBN 0-9630968-5-0. Hatmaker, Mark (2004). Boxing Mastery: Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science. Tracks Publishing. ISBN 1-884654-21-5. "Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni" (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47. Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection McIlvanney, Hugh (2001). The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-658-02154-0. Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-86105-258-8. Oates, Joyce Carol. On Boxing (with photographs by John Ranard) (1987, revised edition, 2006) Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 (available at Internet Archive, [1], access date 26 June 2018). Schulberg, Budd (2007). Ringside: A Treasury of Boxing Reportage. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-749-X. Silverman, Jeff (2004). The Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told: Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-479-5. Snowdon, David (2013). Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World (Peter Lang Ltd) Scully, John. Learn to Box with the Iceman Ronald J. Ross, M.D., Cole, Monroe, Thompson, Jay S., Kim, Kyung H.: "Boxers: Computed Axial Tomography, Electroencephalography and Neurological Evaluation." Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 249, No. 2, 211–213, January 14, 1983. U.S. Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994). Coaching Olympic Style Boxing. Cooper Pub Group. ISBN 1-884-12525-5. External links Boxing at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Official website of the International Boxing Hall of Fame "Boxing". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Boxing at Curlie Boxing Prints Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. "Boxing" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 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listWBANTBRBWBF Champions by weight class Heavyweight (200+ lb) (records and statistics)Cruiserweight (200 lb)Light heavyweight (175 lb)Super middleweight (168 lb)Middleweight (160 lb)Light middleweight (154 lb)Welterweight (147 lb)Light welterweight (140 lb)Lightweight (135 lb)Super featherweight (130 lb)Featherweight (126 lb)Super bantamweight (122 lb)Bantamweight (118 lb)Super flyweight (115 lb)Flyweight (112 lb)Light flyweight (108 lb)Mini flyweight (105 lb)Atomweight (102 lb) Champions in multiple weight classes Triple champions listQuadruple champions listQuintuple champions listSextuple champions listSeptuple champions listOctuple champions list Miscellaneous Lineal championshipUndisputed championship menwomenInterim championshipUndefeated champions Current rankings menwomenPound for pound current rankingsBoxing organisations vte Summer Olympic sports Core program Aquatics ArtisticDivingMarathon SwimmingSwimmingWater poloArcheryAthleticsBadmintonBasketball 3x3BoxingCanoeing Canoe slalomCanoe sprintCycling BMX racingFreestyle BMXMountain bikingRoad cyclingTrack cyclingEquestrian DressageEventingShow jumpingFencingField hockeyFootballGolfGymnastics Artistic gymnasticsRhythmic gymnasticsTrampoliningHandballJudoModern pentathlonRowingRugby sevensSailingShootingTable tennisTaekwondoTennisTriathlonVolleyball Beach volleyballWeightliftingWrestling Freestyle wrestlingGreco-Roman wrestling Additions (2020- ) BreakingBaseball / SoftballKarateSkateboardingCompetition climbingSurfing See also: Paralympic sports and Winter Olympic sports Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech Republic Categories: BoxingEuropean martial artsIndividual sportsSummer Olympic sports One of the best fighters of his generation, Oleksandr Usyk is the undisputed world heavyweight champion who was previously an undisputed cruiserweight champion. Oleksandr Usyk is a Ukrainian heavyweight boxer who became the first fighter to unify the cruiserweight division during the four-belt era in 2018, and the first to become undisputed world heavyweight champion since 1999. "The Cat" represented Ukraine as an amateur. Before he turned pro, he had already accomplished a lot in the sport. At the 2012 London Olympics, he won gold at heavyweight and also tasted success in the 2011 World Championships and 2008 European Championships in Baku and Liverpool, respectively. In the pro ranks, he took part in season one of the World Boxing Super Series for the cruiserweights between 2017/18. He defeated Murat Gassiev in the final via unanimous decision to become the undisputed champion. The 34-year-old made one more defence at 200lbs and retired Tony Bellew to retain his belts in November 2018. Usyk followed in the footsteps of Evander Holyfield and David Haye by becoming a two-division world champion at heavyweight. He outpointed Anthony Joshua via unanimous decision in September 2021 in London for the WBA, IBF and WBO titles. He beat Joshua again by split decision in August 2020 to retain his belts, and over a year later knocked out Daniel Dubois to keep his winning record intact. In May 2024, Usyk became undisputed world heavyweight champion after a split decision victory over Tyson Fury in an enthralling night in Riyadh. Usyk’s status as undisputed champion will be brief with the IBF soon to strip him of their title as his contracted rematch with Fury in October means he is unable to face their mandatory challenger Filip Hrgovic. Usyk Amateur Career Even before Usyk turned pro, he was recognised as one of the best fights of his era going off his glowing career as an amateur. He won gold medals at the European Championships in 2008 and World Championships in 2011. This came after he earned bronze medals at the 2006 European Championships in Plovdiv and then at the 2009 World Championships in Milan. His final bow as an amateur came during the 2012 Olympics. He won gold at heavyweight by beating Clemente Russo in the final on points. This came after he had defeated Artur Beterbiev and Yeymur Mammadov on the scorecards in the earlier rounds. He turned professional with an incredible amateur record of 335-15. Cruiserweight Champion And World Boxing Super Series In September 2016, Usyk beat Krzysztof Głowacki to win the WBO cruiserweight title, which he then defended against Thabiso Mchunu in in the December of the same year. In April 2017, Usyk successfully kept a hold of his WBO cruiserweight world title against Michael Hunter. He won via unanimous decision and made his second successful defence. Afterwards, he agreed to take part in the cruiserweight edition of the World Boxing Super Series between 2017 and 2018. This pitted eight of the best boxers in the division against one another, with the final crowning a new WBA, WBC, IBF and WBO cruiserweight world champion. Interestingly, all three of Usyk's fights in the tournament took place on away soil. In the quarter-final, he stopped German Marco Huck in Berlin in the tenth round to retain his WBO title. Next up was WBC world champion Mauris Briedis in the semi-final stage. Usyk overcame a hometown crowd for Briedis to win via majority decision after a close-fought twelve rounds at Arena Riga in Latvia. One judge scored it 114-114, while the others favoured Usyk 115-113. The tournament culminated at the Olympic Stadium in Moscow, Russia. Usyk came up against Gassiev, who defeated Krzysztof Wlodarczyk and Yuniel Dorticos to reach the final. Fighting on away turf did not affect the outcome as Usyk dominated Gassiev before triumphing via unanimous decision. Usyk's control through the twelve rounds was clear by the cards, as the judges scored it 120-108, 119-109 and 119-109. Sending Bellew Into Retirement Usyk's only defence as unified world champion came against Bellew at Manchester Arena in November 2018. The Brit was on an all-time high as a professional boxer at this point. His popularity was through the roof as he was on the back of two convincing stoppage victories against former world heavyweight champion David Haye. Bellew - who beat Ilunga Makabu to win the vacant WBO world cruiserweight title in 2016 - fancied a crack at undisputed champion Usyk before he hung up his gloves. On the night, the Evertonian started strongly against the champion, as he was ahead on points in the earlier rounds. But Usyk grew into the bout as he eventually took control and began to chip away at the challenger. Bellew soon tired and after several hurtful shots, he was dropped to the canvas in the eighth round by a lethal left hand. Bellew tried to continue but it was to no avail as Terry O'Connor rightly called time on the bout. The Bomber is now a pundit for Matchroom Boxing on DAZN UK. Usyk At Heavyweight After defeating Bellew, Usyk made it clear that he intended to vacate his belts to move up to heavyweight. He was linked with a fight against Carlos Takam but eventually made his debut in the new division against Chazz Witherspoon at the Wintrust Arena in Chicago. Usyk was meant to face Tyrone Spong, but he tested positive for clomiphene just a few days before fight night. Witherspoon stepped in to replace him and the bout was underwhelming on the night. The Ukrainian was in the ascendancy before he eventually stopped his opponent after the seventh round as the American retired in his corner. Usyk was forced to take a year out of boxing as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic and returned against Derek Chisora at the SSE Arena, London in October 2020. Usyk used similar tactics against "War" Chisora as he did against Bellew, as he wore down the Brit more with each round that passed by. The Ukrainian was unable to stop a resilient and game Chisora, but he won via unanimous decision. The judges scored the bout 117-112, 115-113 and 115-113 all in favour of Usyk. Unified Heavyweight Champion Oleksandr Usyk after beating Daniel Dubois Usyk won the WBA, IBF and WBO world heavyweight titles with a unanimous decision victory over Joshua on September 25, 2021, in London, England. Usyk was giving up three inches in height and another one in reach, as well as nearly 20lbs in weight, but the former undisputed world cruiserweight champion's technical acumen came to the fore in an electric atmosphere. Joshua finished the bout slumped against the ropes as his smaller foe looked for a dramatic finish and, while it was not forthcoming, Usyk claimed the WBA, IBF and WBO titles after he was given the nod by all three judges. Scores of 117-112, 116-112 and 115-113 were just reward after a near-masterclass from the unbeaten Usyk, who became only the third fighter after Holyfield and Haye to win world titles at cruiserweight and heavyweight. In August 2022, the pair fought again in Jeddah where Joshua fell to an agonising split decision defeat. Usyk edged a thrilling contest 113-115, 115-113, 116-112 at the King Abdullah Sports Centre Arena to complete a second successive victory over Joshua and retain the WBA, IBF and WBO titles. The all-out assault many were calling for never materialised, but Joshua's performance was far superior to that passive night at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium when he surrendered the belts in such disappointing fashion. Usyk retained his WBA (Super), IBF, WBO, IBO, and The Ring heavyweight titles after knocking out British challenger Daniel Dubois in the ninth round on August 26, 2023. But the result was not without controversy. Dubois caught Usyk with a low blow in the fifth that put the Ukrainian down but was deemed accidental. While some observers might have considered the punch to be on the belt line, Usyk was given time to recover. But Dubois sensed this was his moment and the pair traded heavy punches. The bad feeling between the pair was evident as the bell sounded and Dubois continued to focus on the Ukrainian's body in the sixth. Usyk upped the pace in the seventh, forcing Dubois to take a backward step and leaving the Londoner marked for the first time. Dubois recovered in the eighth but in the final 10 seconds he was dropped to the canvas. He managed to get back to his feet as the bell sounded but there was to be no respite for Dubois. Usyk charged in again and put down Dubois again for the referee Luis Pabon to wave the fight off. Usyk Vs Fury Oleksandr Usyk Usyk became undisputed world heavyweight champion after a split decision victory over Tyson Fury in an enthralling night in Riyadh on May 18, 2024. Fury appeared to have taken control midway through the fight but Usyk came on strong and swung the contest in his favour with a powerful ninth round in which the Briton was saved by the bell. Landing with hard left hands – his most effective shot – he had Fury in serious trouble and once a 10 count had finished, the three minutes was up to spare the pre-fight favourite any further damage. Fury recovered but it was a critical round that swung the contest in Usyk’s favour, winning 115-112 and 114-113 on two scorecards while the third judge saw it as 114-113 against him. It was a captivating fight full of momentum swings and drama with Ukrainian’s front foot gameplan and relentless pursuit of the favourite successful in adding the WBC belt to the WBA, IBF and WBO belts he already possessed. Right from the start Usyk, who was conceded nearly three stones in weight and six inches in height, took the centre of the ring and was more aggressive. Fury play acted against the ropes and started laughing as Usyk applied pressure and the second round continued along the same theme of the Briton getting backed up against the ropes. The Gypsy King continued to be stalked around the ring as Usyk made good on his promise not to leave him alone. Fury opened round four with solid work to the body and then made Usyk hesitate with a sharp uppercut, looking relaxed as he moved around and picked his shots with the jab often finding its target. Another powerful body shot made an impact, Fury then fired a right uppercut and having conceded the opening rounds, the WBC champion was now in control. The firth round was Fury’s best yet and in the sixth for the first time Usyk went into retreat, stung by two right uppercuts that left him needing to regroup against the ropes. Usyk landed left hands to the body and head in the seventh as he resumed his chase of the bookmakers’ favourite and the round ended with him taking the fight, pinning him in the corner. And the Ukrainian took his revival into the eighth as he continued to land with hard shots, directing one right on the nose to leave Fury touching his nose and right eye. Fury was no longer moving with the same ease and after taking a right hook he was in serious trouble, Usyk unloading freely but somehow his opponent stayed on his feet. Only the ropes saved the 35-year-old and he was given a standing 10 count count and was then rescued by the bell at the end of the ninth. Usyk was too passive in the 10th as Fury had recovered from the assault that left him lurching around the ring, but another left hand gave him the edge in the 11th. Fury needed something special in the final round but with his smaller adversary refusing to cease his pursuit, it did not come and for the first time he was defeated. Personal Life Usyk was born on January 17, 1987. His place of birth was Simferopol, which is the second-largest city located on the Crimean Peninsula. His career path was not always based around boxing. Up until he was 15, he played soccer and he was part of the academy for then-Ukrainian top-flight side SC Tavriya Simferopol. The 34-year-old studied at the Lviv State University of Physical Culture and he began boxing in 2002. Oleksandr is married to Kateryna Usyk and together they have three children. He is proud of his Crimean heritage and he has never had any intention of changing his citizenship from Ukraine to Russia. What Is Usyk Worth? In 2018, Usyk signed a multi-year promotional year with Eddie Hearn's Matchroom Boxing. This deal meant that he would be co-promoted by Hearn and K2 Promotions. The latter was founded by Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko in 2003 and they have worked with Usyk throughout his career. The Ukrainian's net worth is reported to be around $45million. Oleksandr Usyk News Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 22 May 2024 Frank Warren makes big claim as Tyson Fury’s rematch with Oleksandr Usyk nears confirmation Frank Warren says Tyson Fury’s rematch with Oleksandr Usyk “will be announced in due course” following Saturday’s thrilling fight in Saudi Arabia. Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 20 May 2024 Oleksandr Usyk ponders next move, Tyson Fury eyes revenge and Anthony Joshua waits in the wings Oleksandr Usyk stands at the summit of the boxing world after dispatching Tyson Fury in Riyadh in the early hours of Sunday morning to be crowned undisputed world heavyweight champion. Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 19 May 2024 Oleksandr Usyk becomes undisputed world heavyweight champion after thrilling win over Tyson Fury Tyson Fury’s quest to become undisputed world heavyweight champion ended in defeat by split decision to Oleksandr Usyk in an enthralling night in Riyadh. Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 18 May 2024 Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk: Weigh-in botch reveals huge size disparity ahead of unification bout Oleksandr Usyk will be giving away almost three stones to Tyson Fury after it emerged that the wrong weight was read out at last night’s weigh in. Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 17 May 2024 'I’ve got nothing else to say' - Tyson Fury coy in final press conference ahead of Usyk showdown Tyson Fury refused to engage in the face off with Oleksandr Usyk in a muted final press conference ahead of Saturday’s undisputed world heavyweight showdown in Riyadh. Lewis Oldham Lewis Oldham 16 May 2024 Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk: Preview, verdict and suggested bets Following injury delays and negotiations breakdowns, Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk finally happens this weekend as boxing crowns an undisputed world heavyweight champion for the first time since 1999. Planet Sport writer Planet Sport writer 16 May 2024 Tyson Fury guarantees a big surprise in his ring walk for Oleksandr Usyk clash Tyson Fury has promised to break new ground with his ring walk ahead of his title fight with Oleksandr Usyk in Riyadh on Saturday. Boxing pound for pound rankings Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Page semi-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The following tables show the professional boxers listed in the latest top-10 pound for pound world rankings published by each of: The Ring magazine Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA — men only) Transnational Boxing Rankings Board (TBRB — men only) ESPN BoxRec Men's Men's top 10 rankings Boxer Record Current weight class Current world title(s) Ranker The Ring [1] BWAA [2] TBRB [3] ESPN [4] BoxRec [5] Oleksandr Usyk 22–0 (14 KO) Heavyweight WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring (Undisputed) 1 3 1 1 – Naoya Inoue 27–0 (24 KO) Super bantamweight WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring (Undisputed) 2 2 2 3 1 Terence Crawford 40–0 (31 KO) Welterweight WBA (Super), WBC, WBO, and The Ring 3 1 3 2 2 Canelo Álvarez 61–2–2 (39 KO) Super middleweight WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring (Undisputed) 4 4 5 4 4 Dmitry Bivol 22–0 (11 KO) Light heavyweight WBA (Super) 6 7 4 5 – Errol Spence Jr. 28–1 (22 KO) Welterweight – 7 5 – – – Devin Haney 31–1 (15 KO) Light welterweight WBC – 10 (tie) – – – Gervonta Davis 29–0 (27 KO) Lightweight WBA (Regular) 8 – 10 7 – Teófimo López 20–1 (13 KO) Light welterweight WBO and The Ring – – 7 – – Tyson Fury 34–0–1 (24 KO) Heavyweight – 6 – 10 – Artur Beterbiev 20–0 (20 KO) Light heavyweight WBC, IBF, and WBO 5 8 6 6 7 Jermell Charlo 35–1–1 (19 KO) Light middleweight The Ring – 9 – – – Shakur Stevenson 21–0 (10 KO) Lightweight WBC – 10 (tie) – 8 5 Juan Francisco Estrada 44–3 (28 KO) Super flyweight WBC and The Ring – – – – – Jesse Rodriguez 19–0 (12 KO) Flyweight - 9 - – 9 8 Junto Nakatani 27–0 (20 KO) Bantamweight WBC 10 - 9 – 3 Kenshiro Teraji 23–1 (14 KO) Light-flyweight WBC, WBA (Super) and The Ring – - 8 – 6 Emanuel Navarrete 38–2–1 (31 KO) Super featherweight WBO - - - – 9 Subriel Matías 20–1 (20 KO) Light welterweight IBF - - - – 10 Women's Women's top 10 rankings Boxer Record Weight class Current world title(s) Ranker The Ring [6] ESPN [7] BoxRec [8] Claressa Shields 14–0 (2 KO) Middleweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring 1 1 – Chantelle Cameron 18–0 (8 KO) Super lightweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring 2 4 1 Katie Taylor 22–1 (6 KO) Lightweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring 3 2 2 Amanda Serrano 44–2–1 (30 KO) Featherweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring 4 3 5 Seniesa Estrada 25–0 (9 KO) Mini flyweight WBA, WBC, and The Ring 5 6 8 Alycia Baumgardner 15–1 (7 KO) Super featherweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring 6 5 7 Jessica McCaskill 12–3 (5 KO) Welterweight WBA, WBC, and The Ring 7 8 – Delfine Persoon 48–3 (19 KO) Super featherweight – 8 – – Natasha Jonas 14–2–1 (9 KO) Super welterweight Welterweight WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring IBF 9 – – Mikaela Mayer 18–1 (5 KO) Lightweight – 10 7 9 Franchón Crews-Dezurn 8–2 (2 KO) Super middleweight – – 9 – Savannah Marshall 13–1 (10 KO) Super middleweight WBA, WBC, IBF, WBO, and The Ring – 10 – Jessica Nery Plata 29–2 (3 KO) Light flyweight WBA (Super) and WBC – – 3 Yokasta Valle 28–2 (9 KO) Mini flyweight IBF and WBO – – 4 Marlen Esparza 14–1 (1 KO) Flyweight WBA, WBC, WBO, and The Ring – – 6 Evelyn Nazarena Bermúdez 18–1–1 (6 KO) Light flyweight IBF and WBO – – 10 See also Sports portal List of current world boxing champions List of The Ring magazine world champions List of The Ring pound for pound rankings List of fights between two The Ring pound for pound boxers List of boxing weight classes References "Ratings". The Ring. Retrieved 2024-05-06. JSantoliquito (2022-06-26). "Terence Crawford Is The BWAA's New No. 1 Pound-For-Pound King". boxingwriters. Retrieved 2022-07-16. "P4P – Transnational Boxing Rankings Board". Retrieved 2024-05-13. "Boxing pound-for-pound rankings: Latest top 10 following Canelo and Inoue wins". ESPN.com. 2024-05-08. Retrieved 2024-05-10. "BoxRec Pound For Pound Ratings". BoxRec. Retrieved 10 May 2024. The Ring magazine women's ratings - 31 July 2023 [1] - ESPN, 3 BoxRec female ratings - 24 April 2022 vte World professional boxing champions Current world champions men women Champions by sanctioning body Major world titles WBA men women WBC men women IBF men women WBO men women Other world titles The Ring men women IBO men women WBU list WBAN TBRB WBF Champions by weight class Heavyweight (200+ lb) (records and statistics) Cruiserweight (200 lb) Light heavyweight (175 lb) Super middleweight (168 lb) Middleweight (160 lb) Light middleweight (154 lb) Welterweight (147 lb) Light welterweight (140 lb) Lightweight (135 lb) Super featherweight (130 lb) Featherweight (126 lb) Super bantamweight (122 lb) Bantamweight (118 lb) Super flyweight (115 lb) Flyweight (112 lb) Light flyweight (108 lb) Mini flyweight (105 lb) Atomweight (102 lb) Champions in multiple weight classes Triple champions list Quadruple champions list Quintuple champions list Sextuple champions list Septuple champions list Octuple champions list Miscellaneous Lineal championship Undisputed championship men women Interim championship Undefeated champions Current rankings men women Pound for pound current rankings Boxing organisations Categories: Boxing awardsBoxing-related listsThe Ring (magazine) Ukraine Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Coordinates: 49°N 32°E Page extended-protected From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Ukraine (disambiguation). Ukraine Україна (Ukrainian) Flag of Ukraine Flag Coat of arms of Ukraine Coat of arms Anthem: Державний Гімн України Derzhavnyi Himn Ukrainy "State Anthem of Ukraine" Duration: 1 minute and 20 seconds.1:20 Show globe Show map of Europe Topographic map of Ukraine, with borders, cities and towns Show all Territory of Ukraine shown in dark green Capital and largest city Kyiv 49°N 32°E Official language and national language Ukrainian[1] Ethnic groups (2001)[2] 78% Ukrainians 17% Russians 4.9% other Religion (2018)[3] 87.3% Christianity 11.0% no religion 0.8% other 0.9% unanswered Demonym(s) Ukrainian Government Unitary semi-presidential republic • President Volodymyr Zelenskyy • Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal • Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada Ruslan Stefanchuk Legislature Verkhovna Rada Formation • Kievan Rus' 882 • Galicia–Volhynia 1199 • Cossack Hetmanate 18 August 1649 • People's Republic 20 November 1917 • Soviet Republic 10 March 1919 • UN membership 24 October 1945 • Independence declared 24 August 1991 • Current constitution 28 June 1996 Area • Total 603,628[4] km2 (233,062 sq mi) (45th) • Water (%) 3.8[5] Population • 2024 estimate Increase 33,365,000[6] (36th) • Density 60.9/km2 (157.7/sq mi) (126th) GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate • Total Increase $515.947 billion[6] (49th) • Per capita Increase $15,464[6] (102nd) GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate • Total Increase $188.943 billion[6] (58th) • Per capita Increase $5,663[6] (111st) Gini (2020) Positive decrease 25.6[7] low HDI (2022) Decrease 0.734[8] high (100th) Currency Hryvnia (₴) (UAH) Time zone UTC+2[9] (EET) • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Date format dd.mm.yyyy Driving side right Calling code +380 ISO 3166 code UA Internet TLD .ua .укр Ukraine[a] is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which borders it to the east and northeast.[b][10] It also borders Belarus to the north; Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west; and Romania and Moldova[c] to the southwest; with a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to the south and southeast.[d] Kyiv is the nation's capital and largest city, followed by Kharkiv, Dnipro and Odesa. Ukraine's official language is Ukrainian; Russian is also widely spoken, especially in the east and south. During the Middle Ages, Ukraine was the site of early Slavic expansion and the area later became a key centre of East Slavic culture under the state of Kievan Rus', which emerged in the 9th century. The state eventually disintegrated into rival regional powers and was ultimately destroyed by the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. The area was then contested, divided, and ruled by a variety of external powers for the next 600 years, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Austrian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Tsardom of Russia. The Cossack Hetmanate emerged in central Ukraine in the 17th century marked on maps as "Ukraine, land of the Cossacks", but was partitioned between Russia and Poland, and ultimately absorbed by the Russian Empire. Ukrainian nationalism developed and, following the Russian Revolution in 1917, the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic was formed. The Bolsheviks consolidated control over much of the former empire and established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union when it was formed in 1922. In the early 1930s, millions of Ukrainians died in the Holodomor, a human-made famine. The German occupation during World War II in Ukraine was devastating, with 7 million Ukrainian civilians killed, including most Ukrainian Jews. Ukraine gained independence in 1991 as the Soviet Union dissolved, and declared itself neutral.[11] A new constitution was adopted in 1996. A series of mass demonstrations, known as the Euromaidan, led to the establishment of a new government in 2014 after a revolution. Russia then unilaterally annexed Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula, and pro-Russian unrest culminated in a war in the Donbas between Russian-backed separatists and government forces in eastern Ukraine. Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Since the outbreak of war with Russia, Ukraine has continued to seek closer ties with the United States, European Union, and NATO.[12][13][14] Ukraine is a unitary state and its system of government is a semi-presidential republic. A developing country, it is the poorest country in Europe by nominal GDP per capita[15] and corruption remains a significant issue.[16] However, due to its extensive fertile land, pre-war Ukraine was one of the largest grain exporters in the world.[17][18] Nonetheless, Ukraine is a major middle power and possesses the sixth largest and one of the best-funded armed forces in the world.[19] The Ukrainian Armed Forces also operates one of the largest and most diverse drone fleet in the world.[20] It is a founding member of the United Nations, as well as a member of the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the OSCE. It is in the process of joining the European Union and has applied to join NATO.[21] Etymology and orthography Main article: Name of Ukraine The name of Ukraine is frequently interpreted as coming from the old Slavic term for 'borderland' as is the word krajina.[22] Another interpretation is that the name of Ukraine means "region" or "country." In the English-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".[23] This is because the word ukraina means 'borderland'[24] so the definite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar to Nederlanden, which means 'low lands' and is rendered in English as "the Netherlands".[25] However, since Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, and style guides advise against its use.[26][27] US ambassador William Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.[28] The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is both grammatically and politically incorrect.[29][30] History Main article: History of Ukraine Early history Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppes of present-day Ukraine and Russia[31] 1.4 million year old stone tools from Korolevo, western Ukraine, are the earliest securely dated hominin presence in Europe.[32] Settlement by modern humans in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.[33][34] By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was flourishing in wide areas of modern Ukraine, including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. Ukraine is considered to be the likely location of the first domestication of the horse.[35][36][37][38] The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of Ukraine and southern Russia as the linguistic homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[39] Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppes in the 3rd millennium BC spread Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Europe.[40] During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Iranian-speaking Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.[41] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian kingdom.[42] From the 6th century BC, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine colonies were established on the north-eastern shore of the Black Sea, such as at Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus. These thrived into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.[43] In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes, an early Slavic people, lived in Ukraine. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout the Balkans established many South Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to Lake Ilmen, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs. Following an Avar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.[44][need quotation to verify] Golden Age of Kyiv Main articles: Kievan Rus', Principality of Kiev, and Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia The furthest extent of Kievan Rus', 1054–1132 The establishment of the state of Kievan Rus' remains obscure and uncertain.[45] The state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part of European Russia.[46] According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' people initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.[47] In 882, the pagan Prince Oleg (Oleh) conquered Kyiv from Askold and Dir and proclaimed it as the new capital of the Rus'.[48] Anti-Normanist historians however argue that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of the Dnieper River were already in the process of forming a state independently.[49] The Varangian elite, including the ruling Rurik dynasty, later assimilated into the Slavic population.[46] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid kniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.[50] During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.[51] It began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who introduced Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.[46] The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.[52] In the 11th and 12th centuries, the nomadic confederacy of the Turkic-speaking Cumans and Kipchaks was the dominant force in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea.[53] The Mongol invasions in the mid-13th century devastated Kievan Rus'; following the Siege of Kyiv in 1240, the city was destroyed by the Mongols.[54] In the western territories, the principalities of Halych and Volhynia had arisen earlier, and were merged to form the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia.[55] Daniel of Galicia, son of Roman the Great, re-united much of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia, as well as Kyiv. He was subsequently crowned by a papal envoy as the first king of Galicia–Volhynia (also known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia) in 1253.[56] Foreign domination Further information: Kiev Voivodeship See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at its maximum extent in 1619, superimposed on modern borders. Poland and the Polish Crown exercised power over much of Ukraine after 1569. Crown of the Kingdom of Poland Grand Duchy of Lithuania Duchy of Livonia Duchy of Prussia, Polish fief Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, Commonwealth fief In 1349, in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, the region was partitioned between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[57] From the mid-13th century to the late 1400s, the Republic of Genoa founded numerous colonies on the northern coast of the Black Sea and transformed these into large commercial centers headed by the consul, a representative of the Republic.[58] In 1430, the region of Podolia was incorporated into Poland, and the lands of modern-day Ukraine became increasingly settled by Poles.[59] In 1441, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate on the Crimean Peninsula and the surrounding steppes;[60] the Khanate orchestrated Tatar slave raids. Over the next three centuries, the Crimean slave trade would enslave an estimated two million in the region.[61][62] In 1569, the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of the Ukrainian lands were transferred from Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming de jure Polish territory. Under the pressures of Polonisation, many landed gentry of Ruthenia converted to Catholicism and joined the circles of the Polish nobility; others joined the newly created Ruthenian Uniate Church.[63] Cossack Hetmanate Main articles: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporozhian Sich Deprived of native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants.[64] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against the Turks and Tatars,[65] and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.[66] However, the continued harsh enserfment of Ruthenian peasantry by Polish szlachta (many of whom were Polonized Ruthenian nobles) and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.[65] The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Catholic Church with its local representatives.[67] Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky established an independent Cossack state after the 1648 uprising against Poland. In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.[68] Khmelnytsky founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).[69] After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch. After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, and Cossacks, known as "The Ruin" (1657–1686), for control of the Cossack Hetmanate. The Treaty of Perpetual Peace between Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty to Ukraine west of the Dnieper river. In 1686, the Metropolitanate of Kyiv was annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate through a synodal letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV, thus placing the Metropolitanate of Kyiv under the authority of Moscow. An attempt to reverse the decline was undertaken by Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709), who ultimately defected to the Swedes in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) in a bid to get rid of Russian dependence,[70] but they were crushed in the Battle of Poltava (1709).[70] The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781, Catherine the Great incorporated much of Central Ukraine into the Russian Empire, abolishing the Cossack Hetmanate and the Zaporozhian Sich, and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, the Koliivshchyna.[71] After the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, the newly acquired lands, now called Novorossiya, were opened up to settlement by Russians.[72] The tsarist autocracy established a policy of Russification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language and curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.[73] The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia and Habsburg-ruled Austria after the fall of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. 19th and early 20th century Main articles: Southwestern Krai, Kharkov Governorate, Chernigov Governorate, Ukrainian People's Republic, and Ukrainian State Further information: Ukrainian national revival, Ukraine during World War I, Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, Ukrainian War of Independence, and Ukrainian–Soviet War Polish troops enter Kyiv in May 1920 during the Polish–Soviet War. Following the Peace of Riga signed on 18 March 1921, Poland took control of modern-day western Ukraine while Soviets took control of eastern and central Ukraine. The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanization and modernization and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.[74][75] While conditions for its development in Austrian Galicia under the Habsburgs were relatively lenient,[76] the Russian part (historically known as "Little Russia" or "South Russia")[77] faced severe restrictions, going as far as banning virtually all books from being published in Ukrainian in 1876. Ukraine, like the rest of the Russian Empire, joined the Industrial Revolution later than most of Western Europe[78][failed verification] due to the maintenance of serfdom until 1861.[citation needed] Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of the Donbas, and in some larger cities such as Odesa and Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.[79] The Austrian part of Ukraine was particularly destitute, which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensive Ukrainian diaspora in countries such as Canada, the United States and Brazil.[80] Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[81] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.[82] Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as Green Ukraine.[83] Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning of World War I, and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initially, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for the Central Powers, though the vast majority served in the Imperial Russian Army, which was part of the Triple Entente, under Russia.[84] As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into the Ukrainian War of Independence, with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, the Red, White, Black and Green armies, with the Poles, Hungarians (in Transcarpathia), and Germans also intervening at various times. Youth in national Ukrainian dress during a ceremony commemorating the 22nd January 1919 "Act of Reunification of the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Western Ukrainian People's Republic", which is honored yearly across 22 cities of Ukraine. An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaning Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), was first announced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in a coup d'état led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, which yielded the Ukrainian State under the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under the Directorate ultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic and Hutsul Republic also failed to join the rest of Ukraine.[85] The result of the conflict was a partial victory for the Second Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-day Bukovina was occupied by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to Czechoslovakia as an autonomous region.[86] The conflict over Ukraine, a part of the broader Russian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. The eastern provinces were additionally impacted by a famine in 1921.[87][88] Inter-war period See also: Holodomor Starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, 1933. Collectivization of crops and their confiscation by Soviet authorities led to a major famine in Soviet Ukraine known as the Holodomor. During the inter-war period, in Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski sought Ukrainian support by offering local autonomy as a way to minimise Soviet influence in Poland's eastern Kresy region.[89][90] However, this approach was abandoned after Piłsudski's death in 1935, due to continued unrest among the Ukrainian population, including assassinations of Polish government officials by the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN); with the Polish government responding by restricting rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality.[91][92] In consequence, the underground Ukrainian nationalist and militant movement, which arose in the 1920s gained wider support. Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. During the 1920s,[93] under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance in Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics. Around the same time, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form of market socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.[94] These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.[95] This period was cut short when Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as the Great Break. Starting from the late 1920s and now with a centrally planned economy, Soviet Ukraine took part in an industrialisation scheme which quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s. However, as a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from the programme of collectivization of agricultural crops. Collectivization was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known as Cheka. Those who resisted were arrested and deported to gulags and work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine", which was recognized by some countries as an act of genocide perpetrated by Joseph Stalin and other Soviet notables.[96] Following on the Russian Civil War and collectivisation, the Great Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as the Executed Renaissance.[97] World War II See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and The Holocaust in Ukraine Territorial evolution of the Ukrainian SSR, 1922–1954[citation needed] Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.[98][99] Further territorial gains were secured in 1940, when the Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region from the territories the USSR forced Romania to cede, though it handed over the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian SSR. These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognized by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.[100] Marshal Semyon Timoshenko (born in the Budjak region) commanded numerous fronts throughout the war, including the Southwestern Front east of Kyiv in 1941. German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the battle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.[101][102] After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.[103] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation program to prepare for German colonisation.[103] They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.[104] Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,[105] in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).[106][107] Both organizations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried out massacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia and Eastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians, which brought reprisals.[108][109] These organized massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a hom*ogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.[110] After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[111][112] At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.[113] Kyiv suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by the Germans from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943. In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million[105] to 7 million;[114][e] half of the Pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.[115] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[116][117] The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.[118] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,[119][120] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,[121] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,[122][123][124] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[122][124][e][f] The Victory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.[125] Post–war Soviet Ukraine Further information: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991), and Chernobyl disaster Two future leaders of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev (left, pre-war CPSU chief in Ukraine) and Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from Kamianske, Ukraine) The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[126] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.[120] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN),[127] part of a special agreement at the Yalta Conference, and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.[128][129] Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexed Zakarpattia, and the population became much more hom*ogenized due to post-war population transfers, most of which, as in the case of Germans and Crimean Tatars, were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.[130] Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR, who began the policies of De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw. During his term as head of the Soviet Union, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR, formally as a friendship gift to Ukraine and for economic reasons.[131] This represented the final extension of Ukrainian territory and formed the basis for the internationally recognized borders of Ukraine to this day. Ukraine was one of the most important republics of the Soviet Union, which resulted in many top positions in the Soviet Union being occupied by Ukrainians, including notably Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. However, it was he and his appointee in Ukraine, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, who presided over the extensive Russification of Ukraine and who were instrumental in repressing a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals known as the Sixtiers.[132] By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[133] Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production[134] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.[135] The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.[136] Independence Further information: Modern history of Ukraine, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Orange Revolution, Revolution of Dignity, and Russo-Ukrainian War Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and Russian President Boris Yeltsin signing the Belavezha Accords, which dissolved the Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991 Mikhail Gorbachev pursued a policy of limited liberalization of public life, known as perestroika, and attempted to reform a stagnating economy. The latter failed, but the democratization of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.[137] As part of the so-called parade of sovereignties, on 16 July 1990, the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.[138] After a failed coup by some Communist leaders in Moscow at deposing Gorbachov, outright independence was proclaimed on 24 August 1991.[139] It was approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in a referendum on 1 December.[140] Ukraine's new President, Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign the Belavezha Accords and made Ukraine a founding member of the much looser Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),[141] though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.[142] These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.[143] Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,[144] though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the time of the dissolution.[145] However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP[146][147] and suffered from hyperinflation that peaked at 10,000% in 1993.[148] The situation only stabilized well after the new currency, the hryvnia, fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from the Russian debt default earlier that year.[149] The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatization of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as the oligarchs.[145] The country then fell into a series of sharp recessions as a result of the 2008 global financial crisis,[145] the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014,[150] and finally, the full-scale invasion by Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.[151] Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasive corruption and mismanagement,[152] which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organized strikes.[153] The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,[154] while efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which arrived in 2020, were made much harder by low vaccination rates[155] and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.[156] Euromaidan protest in Kyiv, December 2013 From the political perspective, one of the defining features of the politics of Ukraine is that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, the West and Russia, and the classical left-right divide.[157] The first two presidents, Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma, tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,[158] though Yushchenko and Yanukovych were generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: the Orange Revolution in 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest of election rigging in his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on the Euromaidan to oppose Yanukovych's refusal to sign the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement. By the end of the protests on 21 February 2014, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed the Revolution of Dignity, but Russia refused to recognize the interim pro-Western government, calling it a junta and denouncing the events as a coup d'état sponsored by the United States.[159][160][161] Even though Russia had signed the Budapest memorandum in 1994 that said that Ukraine was to hand over nuclear weapons in exchange of security guarantees and those of territorial integrity, it reacted violently to these developments and started a war against its western neighbour. In late February and early March 2014, it annexed Crimea using its Navy in Sevastopol as well as the so- called little green men; after this succeeded, it then launched a proxy war in the Donbas via the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.[162] The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troops withdrew from Debaltseve.[163] The conflict remained in a sort of frozen state until the early hours of 24 February 2022,[164] when Russia proceeded with an ongoing invasion of Ukraine.[165] Russian troops control about 17% of Ukraine's internationally recognized territory, which constitutes 94% of Luhansk Oblast, 73% of Kherson Oblast, 72% of Zaporizhzhia Oblast, 54% of Donetsk Oblast and Crimea.[166] though Russia failed with its initial plan, with Ukrainian troops recapturing some territory in counteroffensives.[167] Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 6 June 2024 The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine was recognized as independent of Moscow, which reversed the 1686 decision of the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.[168] Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was granted candidate status to the European Union on 23 June 2022.[169] A broad anti-corruption drive began in early 2023 with the resignations of several deputy ministers and regional heads during a reshuffle of the government.[170] Geography Main article: Geography of Ukraine Topographic map of Ukraine, with borders, cities and towns Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia, and the largest country entirely in Europe. Lying between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E., it is mostly in the East European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).[51] The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile steppes (plains with few trees) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper (Dnipro), Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the Danube Delta forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's regions have diverse geographic features, ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.[171] Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of the Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which runs the border with Russia. Near the Sea of Azov are the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and their waterfalls. Significant natural resources in Ukraine include lithium,[172] natural gas,[173] kaolin,[173] timber[174] and an abundance of arable land.[175] Ukraine has many environmental issues.[176][177] Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.[178] Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.[179] The environmental damage caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine has been described as an ecocide, the destruction of Kakhovka Dam, severe pollution and millions of tonnes of contaminated debris is estimated to cost over USD 50 billion to repair.[180][181][182][183][184][185][186][excessive citations] Climate Köppen climate classification map of Ukraine Ukraine is in the mid-latitudes, and generally has a continental climate, except for its southern coasts, which have cold semi-arid and humid subtropical climates.[187] Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.[188] Precipitation is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[188] Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).[188] Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease due to climate change, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.[189] The negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has a steppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.[190] The World Bank has stated that Ukraine is highly vulnerable to climate change.[191] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of Ukraine View from the western slope of Mount Ai-Petri of the Ai-Petri plateau, in Crimea designated by the Ukrainian government as a natural heritage site. Ukraine contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.[192] There is somewhat more coniferous than deciduous forest.[193] The most densely forested area is Polisia in the northwest, with pine, oak, and birch.[193] There are 45,000 species of animals (mostly invertebrates),[194] with approximately 385 endangered species listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.[195] Internationally important wetlands cover over 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi), with the Danube Delta being important for conservation.[196][197] Urban areas Main article: List of cities in Ukraine Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smaller raion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.[198] Largest cities or towns in Ukraine 2022 [199] Rank Name Region Municipal pop. Rank Name Region Pop. Kyiv Kyiv Kharkiv Kharkiv 1 Kyiv Kyiv (city) 2,952,301 11 Mariupol Donetsk 425,681 Odesa Odesa Dnipro Dnipro 2 Kharkiv Kharkiv 1,421,125 12 Luhansk Luhansk 397,677 3 Odesa Odesa 1,010,537 13 Vinnytsia Vinnytsia 369,739 4 Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 968,502 14 Simferopol Crimea 340,540 5 Donetsk Donetsk 901,645 15 Makiivka Donetsk 338,968 6 Lviv Lviv 717,273 16 Chernihiv Chernihiv 282,747 7 Zaporizhzhia Zaporizhzhia 710,052 17 Poltava Poltava 279,593 8 Kryvyi Rih Dnipropetrovsk 603,904 18 Kherson Kherson 279,131 9 Sevastopol Sevastopol (city) 479,394 19 Khmelnytskyi Khmelnytskyi 274,452 10 Mykolaiv Mykolaiv 470,011 20 Cherkasy Cherkasy 269,836 Politics Main article: Politics of Ukraine Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.[200] Constitution Main article: Constitution of Ukraine Chart of the political system of Ukraine The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.[201] The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).[201] All other laws and other normative[clarification needed] legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.[202][203] On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO.[204] Government Main article: Government of Ukraine President Volodymyr Zelenskyy Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.[205] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[206] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the prime minister.[207] The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the prosecutor general and the head of the Security Service.[208] Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with the proposals of the prime minister.[209] Courts and law enforcement Main articles: Judicial system of Ukraine and Law enforcement in Ukraine Klovsky Palace, seat of the Supreme Court of Ukraine Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,[210] and continues.[211][212] The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.[213] Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".[214] The conviction rate is over 99%,[215] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.[216] The Cabinet of Ministers building In 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".[216] One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."[216] The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.[217] Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.[218][219] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.[217] Law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[220] Foreign relations Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership of Ukraine, Ukraine–European Union relations, Accession of Ukraine to the European Union, and Ukraine and the World Bank President of Georgia Salome Zurabishvili, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and European Council President Charles Michel during the 2021 International Conference in Batumi. In 2014, the EU signed association agreements with all three countries. From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.[221] Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.[222] Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,[223] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.[223] In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and also became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine–NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.[223] Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.[224] The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.[225] Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes. In January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the EU, established by the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, opening its path towards European integration. The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, formally integrates Ukraine into the European Single Market and the European Economic Area.[226][227] Ukraine receives further support and assistance for its EU-accession aspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of the Visegrád Group that consists of Central European EU members the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.[228] In 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.[229] In 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.[230] As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,[231] however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.[232] Candidate status was granted in June 2022.[169] In recent years, Ukraine has dramatically strengthened its ties with the United States.[13][12] Military Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine Ukrainian troops on the move during the 2022 Ukrainian eastern counteroffensive After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.[233][234] In 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.[233] Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country planned to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.[235][better source needed] Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.[236] American M142 HIMARS rocket launchers in Ukrainian service, an example of foreign military equipment received during the Russo-Ukrainian War Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.[237] Ukrainian troops were deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[238] In 2003–2005, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of the multinational force in Iraq under Polish command.[239] Military units of other states participated in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.[240] Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[11] The country had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation and other CIS countries and has had a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.[235] Deposed President Viktor Yanukovych considered the then level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for accession. As part of modernization after the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014, junior officers were allowed to take more initiative and a territorial defense force of volunteers was established.[241] Various defensive weapons including drones were supplied by many countries, but not fighter jets.[242] During the first few weeks of the 2022 Russian invasion the military found it difficult to defend against shelling, missiles and high level bombing; but light infantry used shoulder-mounted weapons effectively to destroy tanks, armoured vehicles and low-flying aircraft.[243] Administrative divisions Main articles: Administrative divisions of Ukraine, Ukrainian historical regions, and List of cities in Ukraine Further information: Political status of Crimea and Russian-occupied territories Ukraine (2021) — major cities and adjacent countries The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit. Including Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea that were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine consists of 27 regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status—Kyiv, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 136[244] raions (districts) and city municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units. Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have a certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance and infrastructure. Volyn Oblast VolynRivne Oblast RivneZhytomyr Oblast ZhytomyrKyiv Oblast KyivKhmelnytskyi Oblast Khmeln- ytskyLviv Oblast LvivTernopil Oblast TernopilIvano-Frankivsk Oblast Ivano- FrankivskZakarpattia Oblast ZakarpattiaChernivtsi Oblast ChernivtsiVinnytsia Oblast VinnytsiaCherkasy Oblast CherkasyKirovohrad Oblast KirovohradMykolaiv Oblast MykolaivPoltava Oblast PoltavaChernihiv Oblast ChernihivSumy Oblast SumyKharkiv Oblast KharkivDnipropetrovsk Oblast DnipropetrovskOdesa Oblast OdesaKherson Oblast KhersonZaporizhzhia Oblast ZaporizhzhiaDonetsk Oblast DonetskAutonomous Republic of Crimea CrimeaLuhansk Oblast LuhanskKyivSevastopol•• Oblasts Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kyiv Kirovohrad Luhansk Lviv Mykolaiv Odesa Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsia Volyn Zakarpattia Zaporizhzhia Zhytomyr Autonomous republic Cities with special status Autonomous Republic of Crimea City of Kyiv City of Sevastopol Economy Main article: Economy of Ukraine Kyiv, the financial centre of Ukraine In 2021, agriculture was the biggest sector of the economy. Ukraine is one of the world's largest wheat exporters. It remains among the poorest countries in Europe with the lowest nominal GDP per capita.[245] Despite improvements, as in Moldova corruption in Ukraine remains an obstacle to joining the EU; the country was rated 104th out of 180 in the Corruption Perceptions Index for 2023.[246] In 2021, Ukraine's GDP per capita by purchasing power parity was just over $14,000.[247] Despite supplying emergency financial support, the IMF expected the economy to shrink considerably by 35% in 2022 due to Russia's invasion.[248] One 2022 estimate was that post-war reconstruction costs might reach half a trillion dollars.[249] In 2021, the average salary in Ukraine reached its highest level at almost ₴14,300 (US$525) per month.[250] About 1% of Ukrainians lived below the national poverty line in 2019.[251] Unemployment in Ukraine was 4.5% in 2019.[252] In 2019 5–15% of the Ukrainian population were categorized as middle class.[253] In 2020 Ukraine's government debt was roughly 50% of its nominal GDP.[254][255] In 2021 mineral commodities and light industry were important sectors.[255] Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft.[256][257][258] Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The European Union is the country's main trade partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are important.[255] Agriculture Wheat crop in Spasov village, Rivne Oblast, Ukraine. Ukraine is among the world's top agricultural producers and exporters and is often described as the "bread basket of Europe". During the 2020/21 international wheat marketing season (July–June), it ranked as the sixth largest wheat exporter, accounting for nine percent of world wheat trade.[259] The country is also a major global exporter of maize, barley and rapeseed. In 2020/21, it accounted for 12 percent of global trade in maize and barley and for 14 percent of world rapeseed exports. Its trade share is even greater in the sunflower oil sector, with the country accounting for about 50 percent of world exports in 2020/2021.[259] According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), further to causing the loss of lives and increasing humanitarian needs, the likely disruptions caused by the Russo-Ukrainian War to Ukraine's grain and oilseed sectors, could jeopardize the food security of many countries, especially those that are highly dependent on Ukraine and Russia for their food and fertilizer imports.[260] Several of these countries fall into the Least Developed Country (LDC) group, while many others belong to the group of Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs).[261][262] For example Eritrea sourced 47 percent of its wheat imports in 2021 from Ukraine. Overall, more than 30 nations depend on Ukraine and the Russian Federation for over 30 percent of their wheat import needs, many of them in North Africa and Western and Central Asia.[259] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Ukraine Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle, one of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine Before the Russo-Ukrainian war the number of tourists visiting Ukraine was eighth in Europe, according to the World Tourism Organization rankings.[263] Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for skiing, hiking and fishing; the Black Sea coastline as a popular summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosystems; and churches, castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks. Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa and Kamianets-Podilskyi were Ukraine's principal tourist centres, each offering many historical landmarks and extensive hospitality infrastructure. The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are selections of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by Ukrainian experts and an Internet-based public vote. Tourism was the mainstay of Crimea's economy before a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.[264] Transport Main article: Transport in Ukraine HRCS2 unit HRCS2 multiple unit. Rail transport is heavily utilised in Ukraine. Many roads and bridges were destroyed, and international maritime travel was blocked by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[248] Before that it was mainly through the Port of Odesa, from where ferries sailed regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company operating these routes was Ukrferry.[265] There are over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterways on 7 rivers, mostly on the Danube, Dnieper and Pripyat. All Ukraine's rivers freeze over in winter, limiting navigation.[266] Ukraine's rail network connects all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial centres with neighbouring countries.[citation needed] The heaviest concentration of railway track is the Donbas region.[267] Although rail freight transport fell in the 1990s, Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail users.[268] Ukraine International Airlines, is the flag carrier and the largest airline, with its head office in Kyiv[269] and its main hub at Kyiv's Boryspil International Airport. It operated domestic and international passenger flights and cargo services to Europe, the Middle East, the United States,[232] Canada,[270] and Asia. Energy Main article: Energy in Ukraine Electricity production by source in Ukraine Energy in Ukraine is mainly from gas and coal, followed by nuclear then oil.[173] The coal industry has been disrupted by conflict.[271] Most gas and oil is imported, but since 2015 energy policy has prioritised diversifying energy supply.[272] About half of electricity generation is nuclear and a quarter coal.[173] The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is in Ukraine. Fossil fuel subsidies were US$2.2 billion in 2019.[273] Until the 2010s all of Ukraine's nuclear fuel came from Russia, but now most does not.[274] Some energy infrastructure was destroyed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[275][276] The contract to transit Russian gas expires at the end of 2024.[277] In early 2022 Ukraine and Moldova decoupled their electricity grids from the Integrated Power System of Russia and Belarus; and the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity synchronized them with continental Europe.[278][279] Information technology Main articles: Economy of Ukraine § Information technology, and Internet in Ukraine Key officials may use Starlink as backup.[280] The IT industry contributed almost 5 per cent to Ukraine's GDP in 2021[281] and in 2022 continued both inside and outside the country.[282] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Ukraine and Ukrainians Source: Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census Ukrainians (77.8%) Russians (17.3%) Romanians and Moldovans (0.8%) Belarusians (0.6%) Crimean Tatars (0.5%) Bulgarians (0.4%) Hungarians (0.3%) Poles (0.3%) other (2%) Before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the country had an estimated population of over 41 million people, and was the eighth-most populous country in Europe. It is a heavily urbanized country, and its industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most densely populated—about 67% of its total population lives in urban areas.[283] At that time Ukraine had a population density of 69.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (180 inhabitants/sq mi), and the overall life expectancy in the country at birth was 73 years (68 years for males and 77.8 years for females).[284] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's population hit a peak of roughly 52 million in 1993. However, due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, mass emigration, poor living conditions, and low-quality health care,[285][286] the total population decreased by 6.6 million, or 12.8% from the same year to 2014. According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians made up roughly 78% of the population, while Russians were the largest minority, at some 17.3% of the population. Small minority populations included: Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).[2] It was also estimated that there were about 10–40,000 Koreans in Ukraine, who lived mostly in the south of the country, belonging to the historical Koryo-saram group,[287][288] as well as about 47,600 Roma (though the Council of Europe estimates a higher number of about 260,000).[289] Outside the former Soviet Union, the largest source of incoming immigrants in Ukraine's post-independence period was from four Asian countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.[290] In the late 2010s 1.4 million Ukrainians were internally displaced due to the war in Donbas,[291] and in early 2022 over 4.1 million fled the country in the aftermath of the Russian invasion.[292] Language Main article: Languages of Ukraine Further information: Ukrainian language and Russian language in Ukraine According to Ukraine's constitution, the state language is Ukrainian.[293] Russian is widely spoken in the country, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.[293][294] Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.[293] Russian was the de facto dominant language of the Soviet Union but Ukrainian also held official status in the republic,[295] and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR, learning Ukrainian was mandatory.[293] Linguistic map of Ukraine showing most common native language by city, town, or village council, according to the 2001 census Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitled any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area.[296] Within weeks, Russian was declared a regional language of several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities.[297] Russian could then be used in the administrative office work and documents of those places.[298][299] In 2014, following the Revolution of Dignity, the Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not signed by acting President Turchynov or by President Poroshenko.[300][301][302] In 2019, the law allowing for official use of regional languages was found unconstitutional.[303] According to the Council of Europe, this act fails to achieve fair protection of the linguistic rights of minorities.[304] Ukrainian is the primary language used in the vast majority of Ukraine. 67% of Ukrainians speak Ukrainian as their primary language, while 30% speak Russian as their primary language.[305] In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is the primary language in some cities, while Ukrainian is used in rural areas. Hungarian is spoken in Zakarpattia Oblast.[306] There is no consensus among scholars whether Rusyn, also spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian.[307] The Ukrainian government does not recognise Rusyn and Rusyns as a distinct language and people.[308] For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.[309] Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and government through a policy of Ukrainisation.[310][311] Today, most foreign films and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.[312] Ukraine's 2017 education law bars primary education in public schools in grade five and up in any language but Ukrainian.[313][314] Diaspora Main article: Ukrainian diaspora The Ukrainian diaspora comprises Ukrainians and their descendants who live outside Ukraine around the world, especially those who maintain some kind of connection to the land of their ancestors and maintain their feeling of Ukrainian national identity within their own local community.[315] The Ukrainian diaspora is found throughout numerous regions worldwide including other post-Soviet states as well as in Canada,[316] and other countries such as Poland,[317] the United States,[318] the UK[319][320] and Brazil.[321] The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to millions of Ukrainian civilians moving to neighbouring countries. Most crossed into Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, and others proceeded to at least temporarily settle in Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania and other European countries.[322] Religion Main article: Religion in Ukraine The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[323] is one of the main Christian cathedrals in Ukraine. Ukraine has the world's second-largest Eastern Orthodox population, after Russia.[324][325] A 2021 survey conducted by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology (KIIS) found that 82% of Ukrainians declared themselves to be religious, while 7% were atheists, and a further 11% found it difficult to answer the question.[326] The level of religiosity in Ukraine was reported to be the highest in Western Ukraine (91%), and the lowest in the Donbas (57%) and Eastern Ukraine (56%).[327] In 2019, 82% of Ukrainians were Christians; out of which 72.7% declared themselves to be Eastern Orthodox, 8.8% Ukrainian Greek Catholics, 2.3% Protestants and 0.9% Latin Church Catholics. Other Christians comprised 2.3%. Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism were the religions of 0.2% of the population each. According to the KIIS study, roughly 58.3% of the Ukrainian Orthodox population were members of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and 25.4% were members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate).[328] Protestants are a growing community in Ukraine, who made up 1.9% of the population in 2016,[329] but rose to 2.2% of the population in 2018. Health Main article: Health in Ukraine This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2022) Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[330] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.[331] The municipal children's hospital in Kremenchuk, Poltava Oblast All of Ukraine's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the Ministry of Healthcare, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.[332] Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues[citation needed] and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death rate, low birth rate, and high emigration.[333] A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as alcohol poisoning and smoking.[334] Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment of Ulana Suprun as a head of the Ministry of Healthcare.[335] Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.[336] Funds must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state. Emergency Medicine Reform is also an important part of the healthcare reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free or low-price medicine.[337] Education Main article: Education in Ukraine The University of Kyiv is one of Ukraine's most important educational institutions. The Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans by Josef Hlávka, 1882, now Chernivtsi University According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[338] Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%.[51] Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.[339] Students in the 12th grade take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions. Among the oldest is also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kyiv (1834), Odesa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in Kyiv (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 the number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.[340] The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.[341] The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries, as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.[342] Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population.[343] Higher education is either state funded or private. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. It is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in accordance with the Bologna process. Historically, Specialist degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in Soviet times.[344] Ukraine was ranked 55th in 2023 in the Global Innovation Index.[345] Regional differences See also: Demographics of Ukraine § Regional differences, Central Ukraine, Eastern Ukraine, Southern Ukraine, and Western Ukraine The results of the 2014 parliamentary election with People's Front in yellow, Opposition Bloc in blue and Petro Poroshenko Bloc in red Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western Ukraine and in Central Ukraine, while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR schools, learning Russian was mandatory; in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian and in the other minority languages.[293][346][347][348] On the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism, opinion in Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.[347][349][350][351] Similar historical divisions also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv, identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as well as Kyiv, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions.[352] However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[352][353] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the Donbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[354] During elections voters of Western and Central Ukrainian oblasts (provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine, Batkivshchyna)[355][356] and presidential candidates (Viktor Yuschenko, Yulia Tymoshenko) with a pro-Western and state reform platform, while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for parties (CPU, Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor Yanukovych) with a pro-Russian and status quo platform.[357][358][359][360] However, this geographical division is decreasing.[361][362][363] Culture Main article: Ukrainian culture A collection of traditional Ukrainian Easter eggs—pysanky. The design motifs on pysanky date back to early Slavic cultures. Orthodox Christmas celebration in Lviv. Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Orthodox Christianity, the dominant religion in the country.[364] Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.[365] The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in its architecture, music and art.[366] The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.[367] In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.[368] As of 2023, UNESCO inscribed 8 properties in Ukraine on the World Heritage List. Ukraine is also known for its decorative and folk traditions such as Petrykivka painting, Kosiv ceramics, and Cossack songs.[369][370][371][372] Between February 2022 and March 2023, UNESCO verified the damage to 247 sites, including 107 religious sites, 89 buildings of artistic or historical interest, 19 monuments and 12 libraries.[373] Since January 2023, the historic centre of Odesa has been inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[374] The tradition of the Easter eggs, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.[375] In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action. Since 2012, the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine has formed the National Inventory of Elements of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine,[376] which consists of 92 items as of February 2024.[30] Libraries The Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, is the main academic library and main scientific information centre in Ukraine. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the Russians bombed the Maksymovych Scientific Library of the Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, the National Scientific Medical Library of Ukraine and the Kyiv city youth library.[377] Literature Main article: Ukrainian literature Ukrainian literature has origins in Old Church Slavonic writings, which was used as a liturgical and literary language following Christianization in the 10th and 11th centuries.[378][379][better source needed][g] Other writings from the time include chronicles, the most significant of which was the Primary Chronicle.[citation needed] Literary activity faced a sudden decline after the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', before seeing a revival beginning in the 14th century, and was advanced in the 16th century with the invention of the printing press.[378] Taras Shevchenko Lesya Ukrainka, one of the foremost Ukrainian women writers The Cossacks established an independent society and popularized a new kind of epic poem, which marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.[379][failed verification] These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as many Ukrainian authors wrote in Russian or Polish. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century, the modern literary Ukrainian language finally emerged.[378] In 1798, the modern era of the Ukrainian literary tradition began with Ivan Kotliarevsky's publication of Eneida in the Ukrainian vernacular.[380] By the 1830s, a Ukrainian romantic literature began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Whereas Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.[381] Then, in 1863, the use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively prohibited by the Russian Empire.[73] This severely curtailed literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlled Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.[379] Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by the NKVD during the Great Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as the Executed Renaissance.[382] These repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works. Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the decline and collapse of the USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian independence in 1991.[378] Architecture Main article: Ukrainian architecture St Michael's Golden-domed Cathedral in Kyiv, the foremost example of Cossack Baroque and one of Ukraine's most recognizable landmarks Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by Ukrainians worldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the state of Kievan Rus'. Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', Ukrainian architecture has been influenced by Byzantine architecture. After the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', it continued to develop in the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia.[383] After the union with the Tsardom of Russia, architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the western region of Galicia developed under Polish and Austro-Hungarian architectural influences. Ukrainian national motifs would eventually be used during the period of the Soviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.[383] However, much of the contemporary architectural skyline of Ukraine is dominated by Soviet-style Khrushchyovkas, or low-cost apartment buildings.[384] Weaving and embroidery Rushnyk, Ukrainian embroidery Artisan textile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,[385] especially in Ukrainian wedding traditions. Ukrainian embroidery, weaving and lace-making are used in traditional folk dress and in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the region of origin[386] and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.[387] Use of colour is very important and has roots in Ukrainian folklore. Embroidery motifs found in different parts of Ukraine are preserved in the Rushnyk Museum in Pereiaslav. National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in Rivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two internationally recognized personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication: Nina Myhailivna[388] and Uliana Petrivna.[389] Music Main article: Music of Ukraine Cossack Mamay playing a kobza Mykola Lysenko is widely considered to be the father of Ukrainian classical music.[390] Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modern jazz. Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented second intervals.[391] During the Baroque period, music had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being accomplished players of the kobza, bandura or torban. The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv in 1738 and students were taught to sing and play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv or having been closely associated with this music school.[392] Ukrainian classical music differs considerably depending on whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was a citizen of Ukraine, or part of the Ukrainian diaspora.[393] Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player Mariana Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and performers like Vopli Vidoplyasova, Dakh Daughters, Dakha Brakha, Ivan Dorn and Okean Elzy. Media Main article: Media of Ukraine The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.[394][needs update] The constitution and laws provide for freedom of speech[395] and press. The main regulatory authority for the broadcast media is the National Television and Radio Broadcasting Council of Ukraine (NTRBCU), tasked with licensing media outlets and ensure their compliance with the law.[396] Kyiv dominates the media sector in Ukraine: National newspapers Den, Dzerkalo Tyzhnia, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus, and television and radio are largely based there,[citation needed] although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.[397] As of 2022 75% of the population use the internet, and social media is widely used by government and people.[398] On 10 March 2024, creators of a documentary film 20 Days in Mariupol were awarded with the Oscar in the category "Best Documentary Feature Film", the first Oscar in Ukraine's history.[399] Sport Main article: Sport in Ukraine Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. These policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[400] The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha ("premier league"). Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team, most notably Ballon d'Or winners Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin. This award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko. The national team made its debut in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions, Italy. Ukrainian boxers are amongst the best in the world.[401] Since becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion in 2018, Oleksandr Usyk has also gone on to win the unified WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight titles. This feat made him one of only three boxers to have unified the cruiserweight world titles and become a world heavyweight champion.[402] The brothers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko are former heavyweight world champions who held multiple world titles throughout their careers. Also hailing from Ukraine is Vasyl Lomachenko, a 2008 and 2012 Olympic gold medalist. He is the unified lightweight world champion who ties the record for winning a world title in the fewest professional fights; three. As of September 2018, he is ranked as the world's best active boxer, pound for pound, by ESPN.[403] Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.[404][405] Basketball has gained popularity in Ukraine. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to organize EuroBasket 2015. Two years later the Ukraine national basketball team finished sixth in EuroBasket 2013 and qualified to FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history. Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional basketball club in Ukraine. Chess is a popular sport in Ukraine. Ruslan Ponomariov is the former world champion. There are about 85 Grandmasters and 198 International Masters in Ukraine. Rugby league is played throughout Ukraine.[406] Cuisine Main article: Ukrainian cuisine Ukrainian borscht with smetana sour cream The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes; grains; and fresh, boiled or pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishes varenyky (boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes, sauerkraut, quark, cherries or berries), nalysnyky (pancakes with quark, poppy seeds, mushrooms, caviar or meat), kapusnyak (cabbage soup that usually consists of meat, potatoes, carrots, onions, millet, tomato paste, spices and fresh herbs), red borscht (soup made of beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat) and holubtsi (stuffed cabbage rolls filled with rice, carrots, onion and minced meat).[407] Among traditional baked goods are decorated korovais and paska Easter bread.[408] Ukrainian specialties also include Chicken Kiev and Kyiv cake. Ukrainians drink stewed fruit compote, juices, milk, ryazhanka, mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine and horilka.[409] See also flag Ukraine portal Outline of Ukraine Notes /juːˈkreɪn/ ⓘ yoo-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, romanized: Ukraina, pronounced [ʊkrɐˈjinɐ] ⓘ Ukraine also has a battlefront to its southeast with territory illegally occupied and annexed from it by Russia. Partly controlled by the unrecognised breakaway state Transnistria. The Ukrainian territories on the Sea of Azov have been occupied and annexed by Russia in 2022, but the annexation has been condemned by the international community. These figures are likely to be much higher, as they do not include Ukrainians of other nationalities or Ukrainian Jews, but only ethnic Ukrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR. This figure excludes POW deaths. Such writings were also the base for Russian and Belarusian literature. 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Print sources Reference books Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–1993) 5 vol; partial online version, from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1 ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp Recent (since 1991) Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (2006) Birch, Sarah. Elections and Democratization in Ukraine Macmillan, 2000 online edition Edwards Mike: "Ukraine – Running on empty" National Geographic Magazine March 1993 Ivan Katchanovski: Cleft Countries: Regional Political Divisions and Cultures in Post-Soviet Ukraine and Moldova, Ibidem-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 978-3-89821-558-9 Kuzio, Taras: Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet Transformation, M.E. Sharpe, 1998, ISBN 0-7656-0224-5 Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building, Routledge, 1998 online edition Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I., Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine, in Language Education for Intercultural Communication, by D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993, ISBN 1-85359-204-8 Shen, Raphael (1996). Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors, Lessons. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-95240-2. Whitmore, Sarah. State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament, 1990–2003 Routledge, 2004 online edition Wilson, Andrew, Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2005) Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation, 2nd ed. 2002; Wilson, Andrew, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57457-9 Zon, Hans van. The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine. 2000 online edition History UKRAINIAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC BETWEEN 40/10.000 BP Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (Rutgers University Press, 1964) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Hrushevsky, Michael. A History of Ukraine (1986) Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second Edition. Scarecrow Press, 2013. 968 pp. Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette University Press 1958) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. (1996) Magocsi, Paul Robert, A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996 ISBN 0-8020-7820-6 Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine (2003) online edition Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History, 1st edition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8020-8390-0. Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation (Oxford University Press 2007) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine World War II Boshyk, Yuri (1986). Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. ISBN 978-0-920862-37-7. Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp. Cliff, Tony (1984). Class Struggle and Women's Liberation. Bookmarks. ISBN 978-0-906224-12-0. Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988). Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp. Piotrowski Tadeusz, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp. Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust in the Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp. External links Ukraine at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage Ukraine information from the United States Department of State Key Development Forecasts for Ukraine from International Futures Encyclopedia of Ukraine Government The President of Ukraine Government Portal of Ukraine The Parliament of Ukraine Economy World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ukraine Ukraine Corruption Profile from the Risk & Compliance Portal Demographics World population in graphs (until 2100) by the French Institut national d'études démographiques vte Ukraine articles History Chronology ScythiansSarmatiansGothsEarly SlavsEast SlavsKuyabaKievan Rus'Principality of KievMongol invasionGalicia–VolhyniaGrand Duchy of LithuaniaPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Kiev VoivodeshipZaporozhian Cossacks SichHetmanatePereiaslav AgreementRussian EmpireGaliciaRevolution and War of Independence Ukrainian People's RepublicUkrainian StateWest Ukrainian People's RepublicMakhnovshchinaReichskommissariat UkraineUkrainian National CommitteeUkrainian SSRHolodomorEastern Front (World War II)Volhynia massacreChernobyl disasterIndependenceOrange RevolutionEuromaidan Revolution of DignityRusso-Ukrainian War Outline2014 pro-Russian unrestAnnexation of Crimea by RussiaWar in Donbas2022 Russian invasion By topic ChristianityEconomicMilitary Geography National parksBiosphere reserves Seven Natural Wonders of UkraineNature reservesPopulated places CitiesUrban-type settlementsRiversMountainsWaterfallsIslands and sandbarsWorld Heritage SitesWildlife Politics Administrative divisionsConstitutionFlagPresidentParliamentGovernment Foreign relationsMilitaryPolitical partiesElectionsJudiciary LawLaw enforcementUkraine–European Union relationsUkraine–NATO relations Economy Hryvnia (currency)BankingStock exchangesEnergyScience and technologyTelecommunicationsTourismTransport Society EducationCorruptionGender inequalityHealth AbortionHIV/AIDSSwine flu pandemic (2009-10)COVID-19 pandemic and Deltacron hybrid variant (2020-22)Murder and suicide problemsHuman rights Freedom of the pressLGBTHuman traffickingLanguagesMinoritiesProstitutionReligion Culture AnimationArchitecture Kievan Rus'BaroqueArtsCinemaCuisine WineCultural icons BanduraBorschtKazkaKobzarPysankaRushnykVyshyvankaDanceFolkloreHolidaysIntangible Cultural HeritageLiteratureMediaMusicSport Demographics Ukrainian people Rus' peopleRutheniansDiasporaRefugeesImmigration to UkraineCensusesWomen Outline CategoryPortal Links to related articles vte Countries and dependencies of Europe Sovereign states AlbaniaAndorraArmenia2AustriaAzerbaijan1BelarusBelgiumBosnia and HerzegovinaBulgariaCroatiaCyprus2Czech RepublicDenmarkEstoniaFinlandFranceGeorgia1GermanyGreeceHungaryIceland3IrelandItalyKazakhstan1LatviaLiechtensteinLithuaniaLuxembourgMaltaMoldovaMonacoMontenegroNetherlandsNorth MacedoniaNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaRussia1San MarinoSerbiaSlovakiaSloveniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandTurkey1UkraineUnited KingdomVatican City4 States with limited recognition Abkhazia2KosovoNorthern Cyprus2South Ossetia2Transnistria Dependent territories Denmark Faroe Islands3 autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia2 (Sovereign Base Areas)Gibraltar (British Overseas Territory) Crown Dependencies Bailiwick of Guernsey AlderneyGuernseySarkBailiwick of JerseyIsle of Man Special areas of internal sovereignty Finland Åland (autonomous region subject to the Åland convention of 1921) Norway Svalbard (unincorporated area subject to the Svalbard Treaty) United Kingdom EnglandScotlandWalesNorthern Ireland (country of the United Kingdom subject to the British-Irish Agreement) 1 Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and another continent.2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia.3 Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf.4 Governed by the Holy See which has sovereignty over Vatican City. 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